Images of Kayayo shot by “gettyimages”
This is the tedious work these kayayos do as they migrate to the Southern part of Ghana, especially Accra and Kumasi. This has an ambivalent impact on their lives as well in Ghana. The Government has to take pragmatic measures in curbing this rural-urban migration.
The poverty level in some parts of Ghana
(Belinda Nana Yaa Ofei belindaofei825@gmail.com) 2023
INTERNAL MIGRATION PATTERN IN GHANA BETWEEN 2000 TO 2020.
Abstract.
This study examines the internal migration pattern in Ghana. The study also highlights the determinant of north-south migration and its effect on urban centres. The study purports that, certain factors influence people to move from the northern part of the country to the south and the effect of it on urban centres include; high demand for infrastructure in urban centres, informal settlement, poor servicing and high crime rate. The study uses secondary data and hence referred to many articles and reports. The study makes use of the recent three population census that is 2000, 2010 and 2021 reports.
Key Words: internal migration, pattern, determinant, urban, rural
INTRODUCTION
Migration has been a recurring theme throughout human history and is now seen as one of the most pressing global concerns of the twenty-first century. Previously, migration was informal and undocumented in Ghana as was the case in Africa, making accurate data on the topic was scarce. Despite the inadequate statistics, the literature alludes to a long history of population movement, with migration playing a key role in both the rural and urban communities’ subsistence and progress plans (Awumbila et al, 2008). But currently, there are some major national providers of migration data which include Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Immigration Service, the Labour Department of the Ministry of Empowerment and Labour Relations and the Ministry of Interior. Since the strengthening of the British colonial power in 1896 and the twin boom of cocoa and mining industries, internal migration has been a significant phenomenon in Ghana (Jedwab and Moradi, 2012). There has been a massive movement of people from one part of the country to the other. The movement of people and labour has been rampant not only in the pre-colonial days but also in these contemporary times. The ethnic groups in Ghana virtually migrated from one place to the other. According to Golscheider (1971), migration is described as a permanent change of residence or movement of people across space which frequently involves a change in one domicile and it results in a separation between the organization of operations at one’s origin of location and the organisation of activities at the destination location. Hence a migrant is a person whose normal place of residence has changed. His current residence is not the same as his birthplace. Both space and time or distance and duration are present in migration. The movement must pass via a specific geographical or administrative boundary. A permanent stay at the destination is required in terms of time. Migration involves a change of residence or usual residence. Residency is the act of settling down in a new or different location. This is frequently captured statistically in terms of the length of stay at the destination. Internal migrant is defined as anyone who had been away from their place of birth for six months (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Between 2000 and 2020 there has been a massive movement of people from one place to the other. In Ghana, a population census is conducted every 10 years and in 1960, the first census was conducted. Currently, there have been six censuses conducted and the most recent one is in 2021. The first three censuses that were conducted were a collection of simple information and receive less technical support from the international community. 2000 and 2010 population censuses included migration data collection. The 2000 and 2010 population censuses focus more on the size, sex, age, composition and other characteristics of Ghana’s population (Ghana Statistical Services, 2000).
The next population census was supposed to be in 2020 but due to the pandemic that hit the country and the world at large, the census was conducted in 2021. It must be noted that all migrants are movers but not all movers are migrants (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Hence not all people move from one place to the other for residence reasons. Ghana has a high number of internal migrants as the 2000 and 2010 population census indicate a greater proportion of people moved between regions that are interregional migration than within regions that are intraregional migration (International Organisation for Migration 2020). From this, it can be seen that Ghana’s internal migration is characterised more by long-distance than short-distance movements. Ghana’s migration report from the International Organisation for Migration (2020), indicates that the volume of internal migration has increased in Ghana since 2000. Indeed, looking at the economic and social state of the country, people move to other places for many various reasons. The focus is mostly on international migration in Ghana as well as Africa at large but Awumbila (2015) states that internal migration is more important for development in terms of the numbers of people moving and their poverty reduction potential. The internal migration in Ghana has caused some regions and areas to be denser in population than other regions and areas hence pushing pressure on the highly populated areas and has also caused less development in less populated areas since capable men and women moved from those areas. The internal migration in Ghana involves the movement of able men and women from one part of the country to the other leaving only children and the aged in the areas.
This essay is based on a historical analysis of internal migration in Ghana and a review of relevant literature, including reports and publications on internal migration in Ghana. This article will make use of the case study methodology. This essay explores the internal migration phenomenon through various data sources. The essay will make use of secondary sources of data. The essay will make use of the 2000, 2010 and 2021 Ghana population census, Ghana’s Migration Profile 2019 by the International Organisation for Migration (IOM) as well as other articles. Many works of literature on migration concern themselves more with migration and the development of the nation with the neglect of the populated areas. Most literature on internal migration focuses on rural poverty with the neglect of urban poverty hence, the research gap that this essay seeks to analyse is the effects of migration on urban development. Internal migration between 2000 and 2020 is analysed and the pattern, determinants and urban poverty are highlighted. The internal migration pattern in Ghana has caused some areas to be more populated than others. This essay seeks to bring out the internal migration pattern in Ghana, the determinant of internal migration and the effect of the internal migration pattern on the populated areas of Ghana.
INTERNAL MIGRATION PATTERN
Internal migration in Ghana began during the colonial period along the North-South axis, with a focus on Kumasi and the Coast (Molini, Pavelesku and Ranzani, 2016). In 1896, the British solidified their control over the entire country and began an ambitious effort to develop the country’s transportation system which was designed to enhance the palm oil and cocoa bean trade while also strengthening military dominance (Molini, Pavelesku and Ranzani, 2016). Due to this spatial pattern of economic and population expansion which emerged during the colonial period, it continued throughout Ghana’s post-colonial history. Internal migration is the movement of people between localities and regions within a particular country (Bell et al, 2019). Internal migration is into four types and they are rural-rural migration, rural-urban migration, urban-urban migration and urban-rural migration. These are the pattern of internal migration in Ghana. In Ghana, most people move from the northern part to the southern part. Compared to the rural-urban migration, fewer rural-to-rural and urban-to-rural migrations are seen. But there is also urban-urban migration which is next to the rural-urban migration. The internal migration pattern in Ghana is more of rural-urban migration and this causes the urban centres to be highly populated and also put so much pressure on the urban centres in terms of infrastructure. During the 2000 and 2010 population censuses, Ghana was divided into ten regions and the 2021 population census, covered sixteen regions after the regions were re-demarcated and new six regions were created.
In the 2000 population census, the districts in Ghana with the highest rates of in-migration are in the south, while the districts with the lowest rates are in the north. Ga in the Greater Accra region has the greatest in-migration rates, with a rate of 21.26 per cent. Coulombe (2005) estimated the rates for 2000 and it is apparent that districts and areas with higher rates are more prosperous.
Internal migration, particularly from rural to urban regions, has accelerated urbanization (Molini, Pavelesku and Ranzani, 2016). According to the data from the 2000 and 2010 population censuses, internal migration rates climbed from 38 per cent in 2000 to 43.3 per cent in 2010. Between 2000 and 2010, the population of people living in cities increased by roughly 28 per cent. In 2010, the population was twenty-four million. According to the Ghana Living Standard Survey statistics from 2012, in contrast to a 7-to-3 ratio in the past, the population was evenly distributed between the urban and rural areas. The result from the 2000 and 2010 population census indicates that the volume of migration has increased in Ghana since 2000.
Table 1. Ghanaian internal migrants, by type of migration and sex (number and %), 2000 and 2010
Migration status | 2000 | 2010 | ||||
Total | Male | Female | Total | Male | Female | |
Non-migrant | 12 054 443 | 5 865 651 | 6 188 792 | 15 565 662 | 7 681 865 | 7 883 797 |
(69.8%) | (69.7%) | (69.9%) | (65.9%) | (66.8%) | (65.0%) | |
Intraregional | 1 884 940 | 863 551 | 1 021 389 | 3 581 264 | 1 606 025 | 1 975 239 |
migrant | (10.9%) | (10.3%) | (11.5%) | (15.1%) | (14.0%) | (16.3%) |
Interregional | 3 318 599 | 1 680 682 | 1 637 917 | 4 486 397 | 2 209 990 | 2 276 407 |
migrant | (19.2%) | (20.0%) | (18.5%) | (19.0%) | (19 2%) | (18.7%) |
Total | 17 257 982 | 8 409 884 | 8 848 098 | 23 633 323 | 11 497 880 | 12 135 443 |
(100.0%) | (100.0%) | (100.0%) | (100.0%) | (100.0%) | (100.0%) | |
Source: GSS, 2013.
Note: Persons categorized as Ghanaians by birth in the census include those with dual nationality.
According to the Ghana Statistical Services (2016), in 2015, the share of internal migrants in urban regions was 50.9 per cent which outnumbered those in the rural areas which were also 43.3 per cent. There were more female internal migrants compared to male internal migrants as both genders had 3,742,626 and 2,745,438 respectively.
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Source: Ghana Statistical Services, 2013
According to the 2010 population census, the Greater Accra region. Ashanti region Western region and Brong Ahafo region had the most internal migrants as shown in Figure 1. The Eastern region, Volta region and Ashanti regions on the other hand had the highest population density. The urban population increased from 8.3 million in 2000 to 12.5 in 2010 with a growth rate of 4.2 percent, higher than the national average of 2.5 percent. The country’s level of urbanization grew by 7.1 percentage points from 43.8 per cent in 2000 to 50.9 per cent in 2010. As a result, the country was more urban than rural in 2010. Also, from the 2010 population census, the least urbanized regions were Upper East and Upper West region. But then, in all, the Greater Accra region had the highest number in-migrant. From Figure 1, it can be concluded that the internal migration pattern in Ghana as of 2010 was from the north to the south. Accra and Kumasi located in the Greater Accra region and Ashanti region respectively, accounted for 52 percent of the urban population in the country. The two cities’ dominance has remained consistent over time.
Figure:2
Source: Ghana Statistical Service, 2021.
From the 2021 population census data, the Greater Accra region is the most populous region. According to Ghana Statistical Service (2021), the Greater Accra region has overtaken the Ashanti region which use to be populous. The regions in the northern part of Ghana are seen to have less population. Many people have migrated from the northern part of the country to the southern part.
Ghana’s internal migration pattern is mostly rural-urban migration. With most of Ghana’s population in its capital region, there has been a lot of pressure in the Greater Accra region and Ashanti region as well as other urban centres. The northern part of Ghana is seen to be less populated and this affects rural development since most able men and women move from these regions to the southern part of the country. From the figure above, questions of interest may include; what are the reasons for the north-south internal pattern? What are the features in the urban centres that causes high urban in-flows and what are the effect on the rural development? From the above analysis of data, it can be concluded that the internal migration pattern in Ghana is a north-south pattern.
DETERMINANT OF NORTH – SOUTTH MIGRATION PATTERN
In Ghana, the majority of people migrate from the northern part to the southern part of Ghana. This is not to say that that is the only migration pattern in Ghana but, the north-south internal migration pattern is predominant. According to Geest (2011), almost one person among five people born in the northern part of Ghana is living in the south. The migration pattern in Ghana has increased the urbanization rate. The process through which a growing number of people become permanently concentrated in relatively limited areas, establishing cities is known as urbanization. As a result, the physical size of these regions grows as well as the proportion of people who live there. In the 2010 Population and Housing Census, out of 5,467,136 households in the country, 55.8 per cent of these households were in urban centres.
Mostly, the definition of the urban area is derived from statistical standards determined either by international organisations or the country. There are many factors that influence migrants to move from their place of birth to settle in another place. This section of the essay seeks to elaborate more on the determinants or reasons for the north-south migration in Ghana which is similar to rural-urban migration. Geest (2011) stated that the environment is the major determinant of north-south migration in Ghana. The determinant of north-south migration includes climate change, infrastructure, education, job opportunities, family relations and marriage.
One major determinant of rural-urban migration is climate change. Climate change has had a significant impact on Ghana. Climate change has increased the frequency of natural disasters particularly floods across the country, resulting in disaster and changes. In terms of migration trends, many Ghanaians internally displaced persons relocate. Floods in particular areas are a result of climatic events. Hazards created by humans have been identified. Climate change has increased migration within the country (International Organisation for Migration). Due to climate change, some people migrate for economic and food security-related factors. According to the most recent available data from 2014, the informal agricultural sector employs 33 per cent of about 3 million of the working force (Ghana Statistical Service, 2016). Due to climate change, farmers in the northern part of Ghana which include the Upper East region, Upper West region and the Northern region have engaged in seasonal migration. This is because the northern part of Ghana experience drought, bushfires and flood. Also, as the amount of rain falling during a single event has increased, floods have gotten more intense (Tschakert et al, 2010). In Ghana, flooding is the major source of relocation. Floods and many other disasters have occurred in the country.
Figure 3. Impact of climate change and migration route in Ghana.
Source:4 IOM, 2017b
Another rural-urban determinant is the availability of infrastructure in urban centres. Most people move to the southern part of Ghana due to the available resources and infrastructure. Many rural areas lack good roads, good health care facilities, potable water and electricity. In order to enjoy these amenities and infrastructure, people from the southern part of the country migrate to enjoy. In the urban centers, hardly will one see a school under tree but this is common in rural areas. There is low healthcare facilities and, water and electricity are scarce in the rural areas.
Some people move from the northern part of Ghana to the south for educational purposes. The majority of the country’s schools are in the southern part especially when it comes to tertiary institutions. One will argue that if it is for educational purposes then, the person is not a migrant but rather a mover since he or she only schools there, but it must be noted that when these students move from the northern part to the south, they find opportunities and other activities that they engage in. This makes them permanent resident in the southern part and only move to their place of birth for visits or other important reasons. Cadwell (1969), highlighted that education is one of the elements determining the volume of rural-urban migration that can be easily changed by government actions. The importance of education in Ghana perhaps all of tropical Africa, cannot be overstated and hence education and its degree are powerful determinants of rural-urban migration (Cadwell, 1969).
Job opportunities are one of the major determinants of rural-urban migration. Most people migrate from the northern part of the country to the south because of job opportunities in the south. Many people in the north move to the urban areas to get a job. The people in the rural areas see that urban income is much higher than rural hence they migrate. Women from the northern regions move to the south and become head potters popularly called “kayayei”. Even though these women do not receive much from this work and it is very tedious, they prefer to stay in the urban centres rather than their place of birth. Also, not only do these women move to the South in search of jobs, but, men and graduated students do the same. There are fewer job opportunities in the rural areas hence many people tend to rely on the urban centres for employment hence rural unemployment causes rural-urban migration. According to Todaro (1976), two sector models that are agriculture and industrial are sometimes substituted for rural and urban respectively. With this, it does not attract people to stay in rural areas to find a job. The International Organization for Migration (2021) states that there has been a shift from subsistence agriculture. Even with the shift, the youth prefer to come to the South for white colour jobs which are not available in the urban areas. The youth are not interested in agriculture which is the predominant occupation in most rural areas.
Also, another determinant of rural-urban migration is family relations and marriage. Some people migrate from the north to the south due to their relatives living in the south. Also, when one gets married and he or she is in the South, the spouse may decide to join her partner. Also, women from the Northern regions migrate a lot to the south. They mostly do this to escape early marriages. They prefer to migrate to the South and sleep on the street than marry and old man that can be her grandfather with many wives already. This factor is not a majority determinant of rural-urban migration.
From this, it can be seen that men and women from the South have different reasons for moving to the South. Men are more likely to migrate to the South for work reasons including job transfer, to seek employment or business whereas women migrate for industrial work as well as marriage reasons.
EFFECTS OF NORTH-SOUTH MIGRATION ON URBAN CENTRES.
Throughout the Third World, countries are experiencing rapid rates of urbanization. Most literature on migration put more emphasis on the adverse impact of north-south migration on rural areas with the neglect of the urban centres. The north-south migration pattern in Ghana has increased urbanization. This internal migration pattern in Ghana has caused urban poverty of which less concentration has been on it. Many people move to the southern part of Ghana for many reasons which include; climate change, infrastructure, education, job opportunities, family relations and marriage. This may not be all the determinant of rural-urban migration since people may migrate for other reasons not stated above. Although rapid population growth rates contribute to rapid urbanization and accompanying unemployment, rural-urban migration accounts for more than half of the expansion of most cities (Byerlee, 1974). In Ghana, rural-urban migration has resulted in a change in labour demand towards jobs with greater marginal productivity. Rural-urban migration in Ghana has caused a high demand for infrastructure in urban centres, informal settlements, poor servicing, a high crime rate and environmental pollution and disaster.
In Ghana, large-scale rural-urban migration has resulted in fast urbanization which has been accompanied by increased demand for urban infrastructure. People who move from the northern part of Ghana come to the South to use pre-existing infrastructure. This put high demand on the existing infrastructure which also in turn leads to shortages of social amenities such as water and electricity. Also due to the high population of urban centres, the ratio of patients to doctors is high as well as the teacher-student ratio. It has been noted that the expansion of urban infrastructure does not correspond to the expansion of the urban population. Some of the eye-catching facts about the issues of urban infrastructure include the fact that drinking water supply, public transportation, sewage and solid waste management are all in far worse shape than expected. Kemp and Fuseni (2016) argue that urban centres have negative public health.
Also, the north-south pattern of migration in Ghana has caused informal settlement in the urban centres. Due to the high population of people in the urban centres, there has been high development of slums. Most of the people who migrate from the northern part of the country are not able to get access to good houses hence they tend to create slums. Most of these slums are situated near a market. These slums are mostly dirty, scattered buildings made of wood with high level of illiteracy among children since their parent cannot afford formal education. According to Lund and Stacey (2016), old Fadama in Greater Accra region is a vast informal settlement.
The rural-urban migration has caused poor servicing in the urban centres. The high population rate in urban centres has led to poor service being rendered to the public. Public servant has a lot of people they have to render services to hence they are unable to deliver excellent and good customer service to the public. For instance, the doctor-patient ratio is alarming in the urban centres hence doctors are unable to deliver proper health skills since they are in a hurry to attend to the next patient. This has caused many people to lose interest in the public servant. This is also similar when it comes to the teacher-student ratio. One teacher handles a lot of students. This makes the teacher unable to interact well with the students.
Table 2. Doctor -Patient ratio from 2001 to 2007
Rural-urban migration has also increased the crime rate in urban centres. Most people move from the northern part of Ghana to the south for job opportunities. When they are unable to get a job, they sort to illegal means to fend for themselves. This has caused a high rate of robbery, fraud, dealing in illegal drugs such as cocaine as well as bribery.
Also, rural-urban migration has also caused environmental pollution and disasters. In metropolitan locations, poor sanitation can also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions (Howard et al, 2016). Due to the high population in urban centres, some people settle and sometimes even build houses near water lock areas hence causing floods. Unpermitted development in rivers renders cities more vulnerable to flooding and other environmental problems. A flood and fire disaster killed sixty-eight people in June 2015 at the Kwame Nkrumah Circle, one of Accra’s busiest and lowest-lying areas, where many migrant-owned businesses are located (Daily Graphic, 2015). Similarly, the heavily crowded migrant-dominated informal settlement of Agbogbloshie, where flooding is a frequent occurrence, is home to a large population (Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, 2008). Also, there is a poor drainage system in most urban centres as well as poor waste disposal. The poor drainage system also tends to cause flood when there is heavy downpour since there is no proper drainage for the rain water. People who live in slums especially dispose their waste in gutters when it rains and this causes environmental pollution as well as flood. This increases environmental pollution in urban centres.
CONCLUSION.
This study examined the internal migration pattern in Ghana. Using the Ghana Statistical Services reports on the Population and Housing Census of 2000, 2010 and 2021 and Ghana’s migration profile by the International Organization for Migration as well as other literature documents, the analysis suggested that the pattern of internal migration in Ghana is north-south. The north-south internal migration has been predominant since colonial days and it has become rampant and increased fast urbanisation. The study also highlighted the determinant of north-south migration and it included; climate change, infrastructure, education, job opportunities, family relations and marriage. The study also explored the effects of north-south migration in Ghana on urban centres. These effects included; high demand for infrastructure in urban centres, informal settlements, poor servicing and a high crime rate.
This study has some limitations. One limitation of this study is the inability to go to the field to gather information from migrants and bring out their reasons or factors that made them migrate to the southern part of Ghana. When there are some interactions between migrant and their reasons for coming are known, it will help draw more valid information on the determinant of north-south migration. Similar studies on the internal migration pattern in Ghana will improve comparative and knowledge on it.
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